BCGBC4010A Apply structural principles to residential low-rise constructions

Structural principles - Loads

Secondary loads
Snow loads
Snow loads in Australia are restricted to alpine zones for a small part of the year. In these locations, buildings have to be designed to withstand the appropriate amount of snow. The size of the snow load depends on the altitude of the site. 
The shape of the roof also plays an important part in the size of the snow load. Snow falling on a flat roof continues to build up and the load increases. The steeper the pitch, the smaller the load as snow will slide off a steep roof much sooner. A pitch roof has some slope or steepness. A roof with a steep pitch has a steeply sloping roof.
A picture is shown with snow sliding off the roof of a building.
Shrinkage loads
Over a period of time, certain building materials such as concrete will shrink, while bricks will expand. Concrete shrinks over time because the cement paste in the concrete slowly dries out. On the other hand, clay bricks expand over time because the moisture content increases. It is therefore important to avoid a combination of bricks and concrete that act in opposition to each other.
If clay bricks are held within a concrete frame, they have a tendency to bow outward as the bricks expand and the concrete shrinks. This causes stresses which may cause cracking.
Cracking can be prevented by providing shrinkage joints which contain a flexible material that moves with the stresses. Alternatively, concrete can be strengthened with steel reinforcement so that it has enough strength to cope with shrinkage.
A picture of a brick wall with a gap in the middle is shown. In the gap is a rubber tube, which is compressible material for handling the stress to prevent cracking.
Thermal loads
All building materials expand or contract with temperature change. A concrete bridge 1 km long will expand about 400 mm between winter and summer. This is why expansion joints and movable bearings are incorporated into a structure so that thermal movement can take place without causing any damage.

Long continuous buildings will expand in exactly the same way and so the expansion stresses need to be considered. To do this, a reinforced concrete-framed building is usually divided into lengths of 30 m or less and a brick wall is divided into lengths of 10 m or less. Expansion joints are provided at these points so that the structure is physically separated and can expand without causing structural damage.
A picture shows a section of a corridor. From the ceiling to the floor you can see the reinforced concrete-frame. There is space between the concrete-frame at the joint to allow for the material to expand. There is an expansion joint running from the ceiling down the wall and across the floor. This joint connects the steel framing. There is a man standing in the corridor looking at the expansion joint.
Settlement loads
Stresses are likely to occur when one part of a building settles at a faster rate than another. This effect is commonly referred to as differential settlement. If the structure contains control joints, the effect of stresses will be minimal, but if the structure has no control joints, the stresses will be severe and may result in significant structural damage.
A high-rise office tower attached to a lower height convention centre will experience these effects unless the two buildings are physically separated or joined together with a flexible structure.
Factors such as the bearing capacity of the soil also need to be incorporated into the design of a building. That is why soil testing is required for domestic construction and engineering advice for problem sites.
A picture of a framed wall showing the foundation and the soil line above the foundation is shown. There is a dotted line representing the original frame that was straight. The soil line has sunk in an area resulting in a section of the frame being lower than the other sections.
Dynamic loads
Dynamic loads, which include impact and aerodynamic loads, are complex and varied. Impact loads may result from vehicle collisions or plant and equipment such as gantry cranes (a gantry crane is a crane which is suspended from a large spanning metal framework). Aerodynamic loads may result from the movement of air around slender building elements such as stacks (a stack is a chimney or funnel structure for the release of smoke or exhaust gases) or aerials. This may result in vibration that is transferred through the building structure. 
There are ways of minimising the effect of dynamic loads, such as installing anti-vibration pads to a vibrating air-conditioning unit on a roof or additional cable stays to a stack.
A diagram shows a flue stack on a roof connected by two cables. The wind blows onto one side of the cable.

Seismic loads
Seismic loads are loads caused by earthquakes. Buildings should be designed to withstand minor earthquakes because they can occur almost anywhere. During an earthquake the ground can move both horizontally and vertically in any direction. This exerts tremendous horizontal loads onto members.
The methods of protecting against high winds can also be used for protecting against earthquakes. To avoid collapse, oscillations are dampened to prevent damage to both structural and non-structural members.
A seismic design should make allowance for large drift by providing gaps between adjoining buildings. Gaps should also be provided between adjoining components that are not required to be rigidly connected together to allow these components to slide. For example, partitions and windows should be free to move in their frames so that no damage occurs when an earthquake causes movement.
A diagram of a building is shown. Waves beneath the building indicate seismic activity. Arrows on the diagram and dotted lines indicate potential movement from the loads caused by this seismic activity. These show the walls moving inwards and outwards, and the floor, ceiling and roof moving up and down.

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